Lemurs

While collecting information for this book, we have received pessimistic reports that all the forest within the country will be gone within 30 years, 25 years, or as little as ten years. To counter this is the great and increasing interest in the conservation of Madagascar’s wildlife from individuals and institutions from both outside and inside the country. Without this interest it is likely that most of Madagascar’s primates, perhaps all except the tiny mouse lemurs and the ubiquitous brown lemur, will disappear within the relatively near future. However, changes are occurring, international organisations are providing money and people to aid conservation, education and development in the country and the Malagasy Government is very keen to stop the destruction of its unique heritage and to secure the essential natural resources for the benefit of its people.Madagascar, approximately 1600 km long and 580 km wide at its broadest point, with a surface area of around 587,000 sq. km, is the world’s fourth largest island, surpassed only by Greenland, New Guinea and Borneo. It lies in the Indian Ocean, separated from the east coast of Africa by at least 300 km of the Mozambique Channel. The island falls almost entirely within the tropical zone, extending from latitude 11° 57’S to 25° 35’S, and it is between 43° 14’E and 50° 27’E longitude. It has a diverse geology, climate and vegetation and, because of this and its large size, it is often regarded as a microcontinent. Certainly, most of its flora and fauna is unique to the area and, botanically, it is one of the richest areas in the world. The origins of Madgascar are still disputed. It may have broken away from Africa as long as 200 million years ago, but mammals could have drifted across the channel up until 40 million years ago. After that time, the increased width of the Mozambique Channel apparently made this impossible. Not until man arrived, perhaps 2000 years ago, were more mammalian species introduced to the island.

The vegetation of Madagascar is both extremely rich and unique. Estimates of the numbers of species of plant vary between about 7000 to 12,000, approximately 80% of these are endemic. The country has been divided into two major floral zones (Humbert, 1959; Perrier de la Bathie, 1936; White, 1983), a moister Eastern Region and a dry Western area, and within these are a wide range of habitats…. The Eastern Region covers just under half the island, extending westwards from the east coast to cover the central highlands and includes a small enclave, the Sambirano Domain, on the north-west coast. This unit was probably originally all forested, but much of the forest has now been replaced by a mosaic of cultivation and secondary formations. The Western Region extends from the flat plains on the west coast eastwards up to about 800m. Within this area are the dry decidous forests, less dense with a lower, more open canopy than in most of the moister eastern forests. Lusher forests grow in riparian habitat along rivers. Included within the Western Region biogeographical zone is the semi-arid Southern Domain. This is characterised by thickets or forests of endemic, bushy, xerophytic vegetation, with Euphorbiaceae and Didiereaceae predominating.

Apart from the lemurs, Madagascar’s mammalian fauna is relatively impoverished. Indeed, it has fewer mammal species (109) than any other comparably sized African country. The native living land mammals belong to only five orders: Primates, Camivora, Rodentia, Insectivora and Chiroptera. There are eight species of native carnivore, all unique to the island and all belonging to the Viverridae; ten species of rodent, again all found only in Madagascar; 32 species in the order Insectivora, which are mostly endemic tenrecs; and there are 28 bat species, though only nine of these are unique to the island. There used to be a pygmy hippopotamus in the country but this became extinct sometime after man’s arrival on the island. Similarly, the number of bird species found on Madagascar is low. There are a total of 250 species of which about half are endemic. The huge, flightless elephant bird, Aepyornis maximus, used to occur on the island but this too has vanished in the last few hundred years.

In contrast to the birds and mammals, the reptile and amphibian fauna is rich compared to that in other African countries. There are around 260 reptile species which include one crocodile, 13 tortoises, 60 snakes and about 180 lizards. Madagascar contains two thirds of the world’s chameleon species from the tiniest, the size of a thumb nail, to the largest at 60 cms. Though there are around 150 amphibian species on the island (all but two of which are endemic), they are all frogs; no toads or newts are found there. Madagascar is, without doubt, the world’s highest major primate conservation priority, with astounding levels of primate diversity and endemism and more endangered and vulnerable primates than any other country. Madagascar is fourth on the world list of primate species (in spite of being only one seventh the size of Brazil, the world leader, and roughly one quarter the size of Indonesia or Zaire, second and third on the world list) and its level of endemism, 28 of 30 species, or 93.3%, is by far the highest in the world (Mittermeier, in Utt and see Mittermeier and Gates, 1985). At the generic and familial levels, Madagascar’s diversity is even more striking, with five primate families, four of which are endemic and 13 genera of which 12 are found nowhere else. Compare this to Brazil, which has only two families, neither of them endemic, while only two of 16 primate genera within the country are endemic.

Of the 30 lemur species currently recognised for Madagascar, 10 are considered endangered in this book and another 15 are believed to be in some trouble, again a figure unmatched by any other country. The fourteen species of lemur that have vanished from Madagascar since the arrival of humans were all bigger than the present day species. Indeed, the largest (Megaladapis edwardsi) may have weighed two hundred kilogrammes, similar in size to a male orangutan (Jolly et al, 1984). These species vanished before they could be studied at all, but even now very few of the existing primate species have been studied in any detail, their ability to tolerate the man-made disturbances of their habitat is generally unknown, even accurate distributions are not known. Almost invariably, there are also no estimates of population numbers. On this basis, an assessment of the conservation status of each species is very difficult. It is, however, sure that all the primates in Madagascar, except Homo sapiens, are declining each year.

The human population of Madagascar is estimated to be presently increasing at a rate of 2.9%; it has more than doubled in thirty years, from 5.4 million in 1960 to 11.2 million in 1989, and it is calculated that there will be 28.1 million people in the country by 2025 (World Resources Institute, 1988). The population is still mostly rural and the people depend on agriculture for their livelihood. To obtain more land the forests are destroyed by slash and bum (or tavy) cultivation. Areas are clear cut, the vegetation is dried and then fired some months later. Dry land rice is most conmonly planted, but maize, manioc and other crops are also cultivated. These are grown for a year or two, then the land is left fallow and the process repeated elsewhere. Degraded vegetation types grow on the abandoned land and these are then cleared after an interval of ten years or so. Progressive deterioration of the soil structure and nutrient content finally leads to the area becoming grassland or being eroded to bare soil. This clearing of land for cultivation is the major threat to the rain forest in the east of Madagascar.

In the west, the principal agent of forest destruction is fire, much of it deliberately started to encourage new grass growth for the large herds of livestock raised in the area. The fires are usually set in the dry season when the forests are at their most vulnerable. Overgrazing frequently prevents any forest regeneration, instead bush or grasses colonise the cleared areas. Fires are also a hazard in the dry forests of the south, but the collection of wood for conversion to charcoal is generally considered to be the major threat in this area (Sussman et al, 1985). Clearing forests for agricultural land also occurs in the west and south, as does cutting down trees for fuel and building materials in all areas.

Some timber is removed by logging companies, but this is not a major threat in Madagascar, especially as now much of the remaining forest is in steep, isolated areas inaccessible to heavy machinery. It is not clear how much of Madagascar was originally covered in forest. Even now there are no accurate figures for the extent of surviving tree cover, though it is usually said that approximately 20% of the island is covered with forest. This is the figure estimated by Guichon in 1960, based chiefly on aerial surveys made in the late 1940s. Estimates in the 1980s record 10.3 million hectares of closed forest and 2.9 million hectares of open forest remaining (World Resources Institute, 1988), but these figures do not appear to be based on any new data. It is estimated that 1.2% of the closed forest is cut down every year (World Resources Institute, 1988), but, again, there are apparently no recent data to base this on. There are no up to date vegetation maps available for the whole country, but Green and Sussman (in press) have just produced a map of the eastern rain forest based on satellite images…. They estimate that the rate of deforestation between 1950 and 1985 was 111,000 ha per annum and that, in 1985, only 3.8 million hectares of eastern rain forest remained. They consider that, if cutting continues at the same pace, only forests on the steepest slopes will survive the next 35 years.

Destruction of their habitat is almost certainly the main threat to the lemurs. Hunting does occur in some areas, mostly using traditional means such as nest raiding, snaring and stone throwing, though guns are now also used and may become a real threat. In several regions it is taboo to kill lemurs but, as human populations become more mobile, the lemurs in these areas are likely to be killed by people withiout the traditions of protecting the animals. The largest of the lemurs have already gone, quite possibly driven to extinction by hunting as well as habitat destruction, and now it is the largest of the surviving lemurs that could become menaced by hunting. The Black and White Ruffed Lemur (yarecia variegata) is probably the most at risk in this way. The one species which may be immediately threatened by hunting is the Aye-Aye (Daubentonia madagascariensis) as, to some local people, this animal brings bad luck and it is likely to be killed whenever it is seen. It does not, however, appear to be actively sought out and slaughtered. The smaller, nocuunal species are the least likely to be directly hunted but even they can be caught in snares.

Trade in lemurs is not considered to be a threat to any of the species (Kavanagh et al, 1987). All are listed on Appendix 1 of CITES and in Class A of the African Convention, which precludes trade in them or their products except for scientific purposes. In addition, bothMadagascar and the Comoros have strict regulations controlling the export of lemurs.

Legal protection of nature in Madagascar began as long ago as 1881 when, under the ancient Hova Kingdom, those cutting down forests were condemned to be chained in irons! Madagascar has one of the oldest protected area networks in the African region, with ten Reserves Naturelles Integrales dating back to 1927. There are now 11 Nature Reserves, two National Parks and 23 Special Reserves in the country…. This system of protected areas is quite comprehensive and covers a good cross-section of key ecosystems. Unfortunately, however, much of this network exists only on paper. The Reserves are essential for conservation of the country’s rich biological diversity, and this was recognised by the Malagasy Government during its 1985 Conference on the Conservation of Madagascar’s Natural Resources for Development (Rakotovao et al, 1988).

In 1986, a project to survey the protected areas was set up through WWF’s programme in Madagascar in collaboration with a number of Government Ministries. The aims of this project are to evaluate the existing protected areas, to develop and implement management plans for priority protected areas, to recommend the establishment of new protected areas in key regions and to train Malagasy counterparts in protected area management and conservation biology. Recommendations for conservation and management have already been made for many of the protected areas (Nicoll and Langrand, 1989).

A number of proposals for the conservation of biological diversity in Madagascar have been put forward by R. Mittermeier (1986) in a preliminary Action Plan for the country. In addition to the survey of existing and potential protected areas, the following are suggested: the establishment of a conservation data centre and a biological inventory programme for Madagascar, possibly to be set up in Pare Tsimbazaza in Madagascar’s capital, Antananarivo, and to be run with the University of Madagascar; a programme to increase public awareness and conservation education within the country; the training of Malagasy conservation professionals; the development of international wildlife tourism for Madagascar; the strengthening of the zoological park and botanical garden at Pare Tsimbazaza; surveys of the most endangered lemur species and the development of captive breeding progranmies for key endangered species.

As has been stated many times, the survival of Madagascar’s unique biota, including its primates, and ultimately the well-being of its people, depends on the continued presence of forests in the country. Given the poltical will in Madagascar, the expertise both within and outside the country and financial aid from richer countries and institutions, there is no reason why this should not be assured. It will, however, require great effort particularly in ensuring that the country’s conservation needs are fully integrated with its overall development objectives.

The Strict Nature Reserves were created by Decree 66-242 of 1st June 1966 though the network of reserves was originally set up in 1927. Access is forbidden to everybody except officials of the Water and Forest Department and researchers who have obtained permission from the relevant Government Ministries (Ministère de la Production Animal [Elevage et Pêche] and des Eaux et Forêts). Each reserve is supervised by a headman (Chef de Réserve) and several assistants. There are 11 Nature Reserves, a twelfth (R.N.I. 2) on the Masoala Peninsula was degazetted in 1964 by Decree 64-381 and is now only a Classified Forest. The size of the Nature Reserves varies from the 740 ha of Lokobe on the small island of Nosy B6 to 152,00 ha of Bemaraha in the west. In total, approximately 569,500 hectares are protected as Strict Nature Reserves.Decrees 58-07 of 28/10/58 and 62-371 of 19/7/62 contain the legislation for the National Parks in Madagascar. The public may visit these areas but access is controlled. Villagers may be accorded the right of passage through the forest and to use certain forest products but there are constraints on these rights, which have to be respected. There are two National Parks at present and a third, at Ranomafana, is in the process of being gazetted. The two existing parks total around 99,700 hectares.

The Special Reserves have been created by a number of different decrees, in general they are set up to protect one particular species of plant or animal. In theory, permission is needed to enter the Special Reserves but, in fact, traditional rights of use are allowed. Grazing of livestock, collection of plants or the introduction of animals or plants into the area is forbidden. Fishing is also forbidden, except in two of the reserves. There are 23 Special Reserves but only some of them are guarded by officials of the Water and Forest department. It is this Department which is responsible for the administration of the reserves. The smallest of the Special Reserves is the island of Nosy Mangabe at 520 ha, while only one (Ambatovaky) is over 50,000 hectares. Total area protected as Special Reserves is approximately 365,500 hectares.

Classified Forests are created by individual ministerial decrees, but local authorities are also involved. They are forest reserves but their function is, essentially, economic. Exploitation is forbidden, except for certain traditional forest products. In several Classified Forests concessions have been granted to allow charcoal making and collection of timber. Protection of the areas is not necessarily permanent. In 1989 there were 158 Classified Forests, with a total area of around 2,671,000 hectares.

The creation of Reafforestation Zones is not necessarily directly concerned with the maintenance of biological diversity. They are established to protect water basins and to protect against erosion. There is, however, a plan to create a Reafforestation Zone to protect particular species of pahn in the north-east. 77 Reafforestation Zones exist, covering an area of approximately 824,000 hectares.

The first Biosphere Reserve in Madagascar was being established in 1989. It is in the northeast in the area of Mananara and will contain a strict conservation zone, with the status of a National Park, surrounded by a buffer zone. A World Heritage Site is also planned for the west, in the region of Antsalova.

The administration of the protected areas is the responsibility of the Service de la Protection de la Nature de la Direction des Eaux et Forets, Ministere de la Production Animale (Elevage et Peche) et des Eaux et Forêts. The Department of Water and Forests (Direction des Eaux et Forêts) is also responsible for all the forests.

In addition to the official reserves, there are two private reserves in Madagascar owned by M. Jean de Heaulme. The smaller of these, Berenty near Taolanaro (Fort Dauphin), is a comparatively well known tourist attraction.

Details of all the Nature Reserves, the two National Parks, over half the Special Reserves, both Private Reserves and some other areas of biological importance, which it is hoped may become protected areas, can be found in an lUCNAJNEPAVWF pubjication (1987) and also in WWF Project 3746 “Amenagement des Aires Protegees” by Martin Nicoll and Olivier Langrand.

The following list of which lemurs are present in each protected area is taken mostly from these two publications.,

THE lUCN/SSC PRIMATE SPECIALIST GROUP

The lUCN/SSC Primate Specialist Group (PSG) has been in existence since the late 1960s and has been under the leadership of its present Chairman, Dr Russell A. Mittermeier, since 1977. The group is one of numerous specialist groups of the Species Survival Commission of lUCN and its membership has grown to nearly 200 primate scientists and conservationists from 45 different countries. The PSG is organised into six main subdivisions, corresponding to the four regions where primates occur, together with a captive breeding division and a special division for miscellaneous activities (i.e. conservation education, satellite imagery analysis, veterinary medicine, wildlife trade).

The goal of the PSG is to maintain die current diversity of the order Primates, with dual emphasis placed on:

• ensuring the survival of threatened species wherever they occur,
• providing effective protection for large numbers of primates in areas of high primat”.diversity and/or abundance.

Activities underway in many parts of the world make it inevitable that a certain portion of the world’s forests and the primate species which reside in them will disappear. The role of the PSG is to minimize this loss whenever possible by:

• setting aside special protected areas for threatened species;
• creating large national parks and reserves in areas of high primate diversity and/or abundance;
• maintaining parks and reserves that already exist and enforcing protective legislation in them;
• creating public awareness of the need for primate conservation and the importance of primates as a natural heritage in the countries where they occur.

The PSG places particular emphasis on conservation of habitat and furtherance of conservation education as both these measures are considered essential and in large part inseparable. Regardless of how broadly one wishes to define conservation, long-term survival of natural populations will not be possible if habitats are not preserved and if local people in the areas where primates occur do not fully support conservation efforts. Additional measures taken by the PSG include:

• determining ways in which man and his fellow primates can coexist in multiple use areas;
• establishing conservation orientated captive breeding programmes for “Endangered species”;
• ending all illegal and otherwise destructive traffic in primates;
• ensuring that research institutions using primates are aware of the conservation problems and that they are using primates as prudently as possible, without threatening the survival of any wild populations.

Among the many functions of the PSG are production of the newsletter/journal Primate

Conservation (formerly the lUCN/SSC Primate Specialist Group Newsletter), edited by Isabel Constable, which is a major means of communication among the world’s primate conservationists and is distributed free of charge to PSG members. The PSG is also responsible for the production of Action Plans for Primate Conservation, which update the original Global Strategy for Primate Conservation, produced in 1977. These Action Plans are intended to determine priorities in global primate conservation, to estimate the costs of conserving the world’s primate fauna and to serve as tools in the fundraising efforts to make these projects possible. The first two regional Action Plans, the Action Plan for African Primate Conservation 1986-1990 by John Oates and the Action Plan for Asian Primate Conservation 1987-1991 by Ardith Eudey, have already been published. Action Plans for Madagascar and the Neotropical region are in preparation.